China’s Nuclear Energy Revolution: How Advanced Thorium Reactors Have Left the US and Russia Behind

In the early 2000s, China had only a modest presence in the nuclear energy sector. In 2002, the country operated just two nuclear power plants—hardly enough to compete with established nuclear powers like the United States and Russia. Fast forward to today, and the situation has changed dramatically. China now operates 58 active nuclear reactors, making it the second-largest producer of nuclear energy after the US, which has 94 reactors in operation.

Yet the number of reactors is only part of the story. The real achievement that puts China ahead in the global nuclear race is its success in building and operating an innovative fourth-generation reactor that uses thorium molten salt technology. This breakthrough positions China as a leader in next-generation nuclear power, a position that has strategic implications for the world’s energy security and climate goals.

From Soviet Assistance to Nuclear Independence

China’s nuclear ambitions began in the 1950s, during the height of the Cold War nuclear arms race. While the US and the Soviet Union rapidly built nuclear arsenals and reactors, China was just starting. In 1955, Mao Zedong requested help from the Soviet Union to launch China’s nuclear program. This collaboration led to the creation of the first Chinese uranium-235 and plutonium production facilities, as well as the founding of the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC).

But the alliance was short-lived. In 1959, the Soviet Union abruptly ended its cooperation, forcing China into nuclear self-reliance. Progress was slow, and it wasn’t until December 15, 1991, that China connected its first fully domestically designed and constructed reactor, the Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant, to the power grid.

Even then, China lagged far behind in nuclear reactor technology, with limited expertise and only minimal capacity. But two decades later, the country has become an example of how government commitment, sustained investment, and engineering talent can transform an energy sector.

Thorium Molten Salt Reactor TMSR-LF1: A Game-Changing Technology

China’s most remarkable achievement to date is the development of the TMSR-LF1 thorium molten salt reactor, a technology that could revolutionize how we think about nuclear power. This reactor officially began operation on October 11, 2023, and reached full capacity by June 17, 2024. On October 8, 2024, engineers detected protactinium-233 (Pa-233), a critical step confirming the conversion of thorium into fissile uranium-233 within the reactor’s fuel cycle.

Located in the Minqin Industrial Complex in Gansu Province, northern China, the TMSR-LF1 has a thermal power output of 2 megawatts. Although it’s not the first thorium reactor ever built, it is the first molten salt reactor of its kind to use thorium as fuel in an operational environment. This makes it a unique prototype and proof of concept for future energy systems.

Why Thorium and Molten Salt Reactors Matter

One of the main advantages of thorium is its abundance. The Earth’s crust contains roughly 12 million metric tons of thorium, making it about three times more plentiful than uranium, the traditional fuel for nuclear reactors. Major deposits exist in China, India, the United States, Australia, Brazil, Russia, Norway, Canada, South Africa, Greenland, and Venezuela. India, in particular, has vast thorium reserves and is pursuing its own advanced thorium fuel cycle programs.

Another key advantage is extraction and efficiency. Thorium can be mined as easily as uranium, but it cannot sustain a fission chain reaction directly. Instead, it must be converted into uranium-233, which is fissile. Once created, uranium-233 can power a conventional nuclear reactor, providing a pathway to use thorium-derived fuels in existing plants.

The molten salt reactor design also has several important benefits:

• It uses lithium fluoride and beryllium fluoride salts as coolants, operating at very low pressures.

• Because the fuel is dissolved in the molten salt, the risk of a catastrophic core meltdown is significantly reduced.

• The reactor’s configuration allows it to be installed underground, further enhancing safety and protecting against external threats.

• Unlike traditional reactors, molten salt reactors can refuel while running, improving operational efficiency.

• They don’t require water for cooling, making them ideal for arid or remote regions far from rivers or oceans.

These advantages address many of the criticisms often raised against conventional nuclear energy, particularly around safety and environmental impact.

A Cleaner, More Sustainable Nuclear Future

In addition to safety improvements, thorium reactors generate less long-lived radioactive waste. The radioactive byproducts have a shorter half-life compared to uranium waste, which simplifies storage and disposal. Moreover, thorium fuel has much higher conversion efficiency, meaning that nearly all the fuel participates in the fission reaction. This maximizes energy yield and reduces the volume of spent fuel that must be managed.

China sees this technology as a cornerstone of its fourth-generation nuclear energy strategy. By building small modular reactors that don’t need cooling water, the country can bring reliable power to remote deserts and plateau regions, supporting rural development while reducing carbon emissions.

China’s Ambitions Beyond TMSR-LF1

Although the TMSR-LF1 is already a milestone, China’s plans are even more ambitious. The government aims to build a larger capacity thorium molten salt reactor by 2030, scaling up the technology to supply more substantial portions of the power grid.

This vision aligns with China’s broader energy policy, which targets net-zero emissions by 2060 and a significant reduction in dependence on coal-fired plants. As the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases, China has a strong incentive to develop advanced nuclear systems that can deliver stable, clean baseload electricity without relying on fossil fuels.

A Global Race for Next-Generation Nuclear Power

China is not the only country exploring thorium reactors. The United States, France, and India have all invested in similar research. India’s Advanced Heavy Water Reactor project, for example, is specifically designed to test the viability of thorium fuel cycles. Although these initiatives are still in early stages, the global momentum behind thorium is unmistakable.

In the US and Europe, interest in thorium is driven by concerns about uranium scarcity, nuclear waste disposal, and reactor safety. Thorium’s potential to reduce proliferation risks—because it does not produce significant quantities of plutonium—also makes it attractive to policymakers.

Still, no other nation has yet achieved the same operational milestone as China’s TMSR-LF1. This reactor demonstrates that thorium molten salt systems are no longer a theoretical idea but a working reality.

The Strategic Implications of China’s Nuclear Leap

China’s success has far-reaching consequences for global energy security. As other nations grapple with decarbonization, intermittent renewables, and the geopolitical risks of energy dependence, China has carved out a leadership position in advanced nuclear innovation.

The lessons learned from TMSR-LF1 will inform not only Chinese reactor designs but potentially future export opportunities, allowing China to supply other countries with small modular thorium reactors. This technology could help nations with limited energy infrastructure achieve sustainable development goals, while strengthening China’s diplomatic and economic influence.

The Path Ahead

While thorium molten salt reactors won’t replace conventional nuclear plants overnight, their promise is undeniable. If scaled successfully, they could:

• Deliver stable, low-carbon power to areas unsuitable for large uranium reactors.

• Reduce the long-term waste burden associated with nuclear energy.

• Minimize meltdown risks thanks to passive safety mechanisms.

• Enable modular installations, making them easier to deploy and finance.

For now, the TMSR-LF1 serves as a symbol of what determined investment and technological ambition can accomplish. It also signals that China is no longer a follower in nuclear innovation—but a clear leader.

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Source: Flipboard